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Optical trapping has become an optimal choice for biological research at the microscale due to its non-invasive performance and accessibility for quantitative studies, especially on the forces involved in biological processes. However, reliable force measurements depend on the calibration of the optical traps, which is different for each experiment and hence requires high control of the local variables, especially of the trapped object geometry. Many biological samples have an elongated, rod-like shape, such as chromosomes, intracellular organelles (e.g., peroxisomes), membrane tubules, certain microalgae, and a wide variety of bacteria and parasites. This type of samples often requires several optical traps to stabilize and orient them in the correct spatial direction, making it more difficult to determine the total force applied. Here, we manipulate glass microcylinders with holographic optical tweezers and show the accurate measurement of drag forces by calibration-free direct detection of beam momentum. The agreement between our results and slender-body hydrodynamic theoretical calculations indicates potential for this force-sensing method in studying protracted, rod-shaped specimens.
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One solution that is widely applied in bacterial swimming studies consists of monitoring the trapping laser light with a photodiode and inferring information after complex processing of the electric signals obtained. Although not strictly measuring forces, this strategy has successfully shed light on several motility parameters, such as body and flagellar rotation frequencies, velocity variations and direction reversals, cell viability, bacterial swimming patterns and bacterial chemotaxis8,9,10,11.
How to cite this article: Català, F. et al. Extending calibration-free force measurements to optically-trapped rod-shaped samples. Sci. Rep. 7, 42960; doi: 10.1038/srep42960 (2017).
M. M.-U. and A. F. are inventors on the patents US 8,637,803 and JP 5,728,470 that protect the technology for measuring forces used in the research presented. F. M., M. M.-U. and A. F. are stockholders of the company Impetux Optics S. L., which commercially exploits said patented technology. In addition, F. M. and A. F. were employees of the company during the development of the research.
As a global leader in dynamic measurement technology for measuring pressure, force, torque and acceleration, we support our customers in industry and science to improve their products and make their manufacturing processes more efficient. The piezoelectric sensor is at the heart of every measurement system from Kistler and, based on piezoelectric technology, the most important element of our measurement technology.
The research on bite force has a long history. In 1681, Borelli first studied the bite forces and designed a gnathodynamometer. After that, several researchers continued to develop devices to measure bite force, including lever-spring, monometerspring and micrometered instruments (Ortuğ, 2002). Today, various sensitive electronic devices are in use to measure bite force. These devices use pressure sensors to convert force into electrical energy and can be divided into strain gauge transducers, piezoelectric transducers, piezoresistive transducers, and pressure transducers (Collins, 2015). There are already many commercially available devices used to record bite force, such as the Dentoforce 2 (ITLAB, Sollentuna, Sweden), IDDK (Kratos, Cotia, São Paulo, Brazil), FSR No. 151 (Interlink Electronics Inc., Camarillo, CA, United States), Flexiforce (Tekscan, South Boston, MA, United States), GM10 (Nagano Keiki, Japan), MPX 5700 (Motorola, SPS, Austin, TX, United States), T Scan system (Tekscan, Inc., South Boston, MA, United States) and the Dental Prescale system (GC Co. Ltd., Japan). These devices can be used to assist in the diagnosis of pre-existing temporomandibular disorders, mandibular fractures and malocclusion deformities, and can be used to evaluate the treatment efficacy by comparing the bite force values before and after an intervention (Alam and Alfawzan, 2020; Kruse et al., 2020b).
The piezoelectric material generates electric charges on the surface after being forced, and after the charge amplifier and the measuring circuit amplify and transform the impedance, it becomes an electrical output proportional to the external force. Quartz crystals are the earliest applied piezoelectric material. With the large-scale application of piezoelectric sensors, many artificial crystals have been developed using quartz, such as piezoelectric single crystals (Zhu et al., 2020). However, due to their performance defects, these artificial single crystals have gradually been replaced.
The main advantages of the Dental Prescale system are the ability to measure the occlusal force and occlusal contact area close to the position between the teeth, and it will not interfere with the occlusion when measuring the occlusal force. However, this system cannot perform continuous measurements. In addition, the pressure-sensitive film needs to be further analyzed by analytical equipment, which is time-consuming.
Takahashi et al. developed a metal-free bite force meter, which is designed to omit any electronic or metal components so that it can operate safely in a magnetic field. The device contains a micropressure sensor made of optical fibers (FOP-M-BA; Fiso Technologies Inc., Quebec, QC, Canada) and plastic parts (water bag, pipe and check valve) (Takahashi et al., 2016). Heat-sealable plastic sheets were used to make water bags to match the dental arch of each patient. By reducing the length of the water bag, bites between the upper and lower molars can be avoided. After filling the bag with water and using a sensor (EVO-SD-2; Fiso Technologies, Inc.) the device can measure the change in the internal water pressure. The force applied to each bag was used to monitor the generated pressure using a dynamometer (ZP-1000N; IMADA Co., Ltd., Toyohashi, Japan) to obtain a linear calibration curve for each bag. Therefore, after calibration, the internal water pressure can reflect the bite force applied.
Umesh et al. developed a method to dynamically measure the bite force generated by a single tooth using a fiber Bragg grating bite force recorder (FBGBFR). The proposed FBGBFR is an intraoral device designed to convert the bite force applied on the occlusal surface into strain changes on the substrate and then sense it through the FBG sensor above it (Umesh et al., 2016). The developed device consists of two rectangular rods with dimensions of 100 mm 5 mm 4 mm, which are riveted in the center by a movable joint, which makes the two rods imitate the action of scissors. The fiber Bragg grating sensor is glued on a rectangular plate, and the sensor can acquire strain changes on it. The rubber film is attached to the occlusal platform to provide cushioning for the teeth while applying an occlusal force. The magnitude of the strain change on the rectangular plate directly depends on the magnitude of the force exerted on the occlusal platform. The bite force measuring device converts the applied bite force into a strain change, and the strain change is acquired by a fiber Bragg grating sensor.
4.1 Testing machines that apply and indicate force are in general use in many industries. Practices E4 has been written to provide a practice for the force verification of these machines. A necessary element in Practices E4 is the use of force-measuring instruments whose force characteristics are known to be traceable to the SI. Practices E74 describes how these force-measuring instruments are to be calibrated. The procedures are useful to users of testing machines, manufacturers and providers of force-measuring instruments, calibration laboratories that provide the calibration of the instruments and the documents of traceability, service organizations that use the force-measuring instruments to verify testing machines, and testing laboratories performing general structural test measurements. 2ff7e9595c
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